How does electric power production use and consume water?
Cooling
Technologies
Thermal electric generating facilities make electricity by converting
water into high-pressure steam that drives turbines. Once water has gone
through this cycle, it is cooled and condensed back to water and then
reheated to drive the turbines again. The process of condensation
requires a separate cooling water body to absorb the heat of the steam.
These condenser systems typically consist of banks of thousands of
one-inch diameter tubes, through which cooling water is run, and over
which the hot steam and water is circulated.
Two cooling technologies are in
use today:
- Closed-cycle
systems discharge heat through evaporation in cooling towers and
recycle water within the power plant. The water required to do this
is comparatively small since it is limited to the amount lost
through the evaporative process. Because of the expense associated
with closed-cycle cooling, once-through systems are far more common.
-
Once-through systems require the intake of a continual flow
of cooling water. The water demand for the once-through system is 30
to 50 times that of a closed cycle system.
The amount of water used for power plant cooling also varies by each
specific power plant's electricity generating technology and size. For
example, nuclear reactors require the most water for cooling, and
baseload fossil fuel power plants come in second. Steam electric
generating plants across the nation draw in more than 200 billion
gallons per day. Most renewable energy technologies require little or no
water for cooling.
Hydropower
Generation
To generate power, hydropower plants divert water from the river through
turbines. Water is diverted from the river via an intake at the dam. At
some hydropower plants, the turbines are located in the dam and thus the
water is released again right below the dam. At other hydropower plants,
the turbines are located in a powerhouse significantly downstream from
the dam (in order to generate enough height difference, or "head,"
between where the water is diverted to where the power is generated).
This means that the water can be diverted outside of the stream for some
distances, sometimes several miles, before being released back in the
river.
What do we mean by water use and consumption?
Most electric power plants require water to operate. Nuclear and
fossil fuel power plants drink over 185 billion gallons of water per
day. Geothermal power plants add another 2 billion or so gallons a day.
Hydropower plants use water directly to generate power. These power
plants represent the single largest consumer of water among any
industrial, governmental or residential activity. Since 98 percent of
the water used in power plants is returned to its source, distinctions
are made between use and consumption.
Water use
is a measure of the amount of water that is withdrawn from an adjacent
water body (lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries, etc.), passes through
various components of a power plant, and is then ultimately discharged
back into the original water body. Environmental concerns surrounding
water use center around any chemical or physical alteration of the water
body and any impacts these changes may have on the plants, fish and
animals who reside in the ecosystem.
Water
consumption refers to water sucked up in power plant operations that
is lost, typically through evaporation. The primary concerns surrounding
water consumption is how best to utilize this essential resource,
especially in areas, such as deserts in the West, where water is in
short supply.
What are the consequences of water use and consumption?
Withdrawal of large volumes of
surface water for either power plant cooling or hydropower generation
can kill fish, larvae and other organisms trapped against intake
structures (impinged), or swept up (entrained) in the flow
through the different sections of a power plant.
Large fossil fuel and nuclear
plants require incredible quantities of water for cooling and
ongoing maintenance. The Salem Nuclear Generating Station alone takes 3
billion gallons a day from the Delaware Bay. Studies of the
environmental consequences of this phenomenal water demand indicates
that Salem is responsible for an annual 11 percent reduction in weakfish
and 31 percent reduction in bay anchovy. At the Indian Point 2 and 3
reactors on the Hudson River, the number of fish impinged totaled over
1.5 million fish in 1987. The 90 power plants using
once-through-cooling (see below) on the Great Lakes kill in excess
of 40 million fish per year due to impingement (Pace University,
Environmental Costs of Electricity, p. 287).
The use of water to generate power at hydropower facilities imposes
unique, and by no means insignificant, ecological impacts. The diversion
of water out of the river removes water for healthy in-stream
ecosystems. Stretches below dams are often completely de-watered.
Fluctuations in water flow from peaking operations create a "tidal
effect," disrupting the downstream riparian community that supports its
unique ecosystem. A dam's impoundment slows water flows, which hinders
natural downstream migration of many fish species. By slowing river
flows, dams also allow silt to collect on river and reservoir bottoms
and bury fish spawning habitat. Silt trapped above dams accumulates
heavy metals and other pollutants. Disrupting the natural flow of
sediments in rivers also leads to erosion of riverbeds downstream of the
dam and increases risks of floods.
The impoundment of water by hydropower facilities fundamentally
reshapes the physical habitat from a riverine to an artificial pond
community. This often eliminates native populations of fish and other
wildlife. Dams also impede the upstream and downstream movement of fish
and other wildlife, and prevent the flow of plants and nutrients. This
impact is most significant on migratory fish, which are born in the
river and must migrate downstream early in life to the ocean and then
migrate upstream again to lay their eggs (or "spawn"). As mentioned
above, withdrawal of water into turbines can also impinge or entrain
significant numbers of fish.
(See also
Hydropower Generation,
Water Quality and
Land
Impacts Issue Papers for more information on hydropower
impacts.)
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